References 1. Doyle D, Hanks GWC, MacDonald N. Introduction. In: Doyle D, Hanks GWC, MacDonald N, eds. Oxford textbook of palliative medicine. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998:3. 2. Baines MJ. ABC of palliative care. Nausea, vomiting, and intestinal obstruction. BMJ 1997;315:1148-50. 3. Reuben DB, Mor V. Nausea and vomiting in terminal cancer patients. Arch Intern Med 1986;146:2021-3. 4.Foley KM. The treatment of cancer pain. N Engl J Med 1985;313:84-95. 5. Bruera E, Seifert L, Watanabe S, et al. Chronic nausea in advanced cancer patients: a retrospective assessment of a metoclopramide-based antiemetic regimen. J Pain Symptom Manage 1996;11:147-53. 6. Cole RM, Robinson F, Harvey L, Trethowan K, Murdoch V. Successful control of intractable nausea and vomiting requiring combined ondansetron and haloperidol in a patient with advanced cancer. J Pain Symptom Manage 1994;9:48-50. 7. Walsh TD. Prevention of opioid side effects. J Pain Symptom Manage 1990;5:362-7. 8. Mercadante S, Sapio M, Serretta R. Ondansetron in nausea and vomiting induced by spinal morphine. J Pain Symptom Manage 1998;16:259-62. 9. Schug SA, Zech D, Grond S. Adverse effects of systemic opioid analgesics. Drug Saf 1992;7:200-13. 10. Aldrete JA. Reduction of nausea and vomiting from epidural opioids by adding droperidol to the infusate in home-bound patients. J Pain Symptom Manage 1995;10:544-7. 11. Portenoy RK. Management of common opioid side effects during long-term therapy of cancer pain. Ann Acad Med Singapore 1994;23:160-70. 12. Mannix KA. Gastrointestinal symptoms. In: Doyle D, Hanks GWC, MacDonald N, eds. Oxford textbook of palliative medicine. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998:489-99. 13. Guyton AC, Hall JE. Physiology of gastrointestinal disorders. In: Guyton AC, Hall JE, eds. Textbook of medical physiology. Philadelphia: WB Saunders, 1996:845-54. 14.Fallon BG. Nausea and vomiting unrelated to cancer treatment. In: Berger AM, Portenoy RK, Weissman DE, eds. Principles and practice of supportive oncology. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 1998:179-90. 15. Luca AD, Coupar IM. Insights into opioid action in the intestinal tract. Pharmacol Ther 1996;69:103-15. 16. Borody TJ, Quigley EM, Phillips SF, et al. Effects of morphine and atropine on motility and transit in the human ileum. Gastroenterology 1985;89:562-70. 17. Yuan CS, Foss JF, O'Connor M, Moss J, Roizen MF. Gut motility and transit changes in patients receiving long-term methadone maintenance. J Clin Pharmacol 1998;38:931-5. 18. Murthy BV, Ion F, Winstanley JR. Intestinal pseudo-obstruction associated with oral morphine. Eur J Anaesthesiol 1998;15:370-1. 19. Rogers M, Cerda JJ. The narcotic bowel syndrome. J Clin Gastroenterol 1989;11:132-5. 20. Mantovani G, Curreli L, Maccio A, et al. Prevention of nausea and vomiting in cancer patients receiving high-dose cisplatin. Assessment of the potential antiemetic activity of transdermal fentanyl (TTS-F) compared to standard antiemetic treatment in acute and delayed nausea and vomiting: first clinical report. Anticancer Res 1999;19:3495-502. 21. Walsh D, Doona M, Molnar M, Lipnickey V. Symptom control in advanced cancer: important drugs and routes of administration. Semin Oncol 2000;27:69-83. 22. Bruera E, Kuehn N, Miller MJ, Selmser P, Macmillan K. The Edmonton symptom assessment system (ESAS): a simple method for the assessment of palliative care patients. J Palliat Care 1991;7:6-9. 23. Bruera E, Neumann CM. Management of specific symptom complexes in patients receiving palliative care. Can Med Assoc J 1998;158:1717-26. 24. Reisine T, Pasternak G. Opioid analgesics and antagonists. In: Hardman JG, Limbird LE, Molinoff PB, Ruddon RW, Gilman AG, eds. Goodman & Gilman's the pharmacological basis of therapeutics. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1996:521-56. 25. Volkow ND, Gur RC, Wang GJ, et al. Association between decline in brain dopamine activity with age and cognitive and motor impairment in healthy individuals. Am J Psychiatry 1998;155:344-9. 26. Pollock BG. Antipsychotics in older patient: a safety perspective. Drugs Aging 1995;6:312-23. 27. Tyler LS. Nausea and vomiting in palliative care. J Pharmaceut Care Pain Symptom Control 2000;8:163-81. 28. Silverman DG, Freilich J, Sevarino FB, Paige D, Preble L, O'Connor TZ. Influence of promethazine on symptom-therapy scores for nausea during patient-controlled analgesia with morphine. Anesth Analg 1992;74:735-8. 29. Skinner J, Skinner A. Levomepromazine for nausea and vomiting in advanced cancer. Hosp Med 1999;60:568-70. 30. Rogers AG. The use of methotrimeprazine (Levoprome) in a patient sensitive to opioids and possible bowel shutdown. J Pain Symptom Manage 1989;4:44-5. 31. Lang AE, Lozano AM. Parkinson's disease. First of two parts. N Engl J Med 1998;339:1044-53. 32. Lang AE, Lozano AM. Parkinson's disease. Second of two parts. N Engl J Med 1998;339:1130-43. 33. Bassotti G, Chiarioni G, Vantini I, Morelli A, Whitehead WE. Effect of different doses of erythromycin on colonic motility in patients with slow transit constipation. Z Gastroenterol 1998;36:209-13. 34. Chieppa DM, Mansi G, Rinaldi R, et al. Effects of erythromycin on human colonic circular muscle in idiopathic chronic constipation. Eur J Clin Invest 2000;30:66-71. 35. Longo WE, Vernava AM. Prokinetic agents for lower gastrointestinal motility disorders. Dis Colon Rectum 1993;36:696-708. 36. Sharma SS, Bhargava N, Mathur SC. Effect of oral erythromycin on colonic transit in patients with idiopathic constipation. A pilot study. Dig Dis Sci 1995;40:2446-9. 37. Puccio M, Nathanson L. The cancer cachexia syndrome. Semin Oncol 1997;24:277-87. 38. Storey P, Hill HH Jr, St. Louis RH, Tarver EE. Subcutaneous infusions for control of cancer symptoms. J Pain Symptom Manage 1990;5:33-41. 39. Portenoy RK. Pain in oncologic and AIDS patients. Newtown, PA: Handbooks in Health Care, 1997. 40. Kenny GN, Oates JD, Leeser J, et al. Efficacy of orally administered ondansetron in the prevention of postoperative nausea and vomiting: a dose ranging study. Br J Anaesth 1992;68:466-70. 41. Sussman G, Shurman J, Creed MR, et al. Intravenous ondansetron for the control of opioid-induced nausea and vomiting. International S3AA3013 study group. Clin Ther 1999;21:1216-27. 42. Dundee JW, Jones PO. The prevention of analgesic-induced nausea and vomiting by cyclizine. Br J Clin Pract 1968;22:379-82. 43.Ferris FD, Kerr IG, Sone M, Marcuzzi M. Transdermal scopolamine use in the control of narcotic-induced nausea. J Pain Symptom Manage 1991;6:389-93. 44. Wang JJ, Ho ST, Liu YH, Ho CM, Liu K, Chia YY. Dexamethasone decreases epidural morphine-related nausea and vomiting. Anesth Analg 1999;89:117-20. 45. Ioannidis JP, Hesketh PJ, Lau J. Contribution of dexamethasone to control of chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting: a meta-analysis of randomized evidence. J Clin Oncol 2000;18:3409-22. 46. Lundstrom S, Furst CJ, Borjeson S, et al. Aspects of delayed chemotherapy-induced nausea. Dexamethasone and adrenal response patterns in patients and healthy volunteers. Support Care Cancer 2000;8:431-4. 47. Thomas R, Jones N. Dexamethasone reduces nausea and vomiting after laparoscopy. Br J Anaesth 2000;85:328-9. 48. Wang JJ, Ho ST, Tzeng JI, Tang CS. The effect of timing of dexamethasone administration on its efficacy as a prophylactic antiemetic for postoperative nausea and vomiting. Anesth Analg 2000;91:136-9. 49. White L, Daly SA, McKenna CJ, et al. A comparison of oral ondansetron syrup or intravenous ondansetron loading dose regimens given in combination with dexamethasone for the prevention of nausea and emesis in pediatric and adolescent patients receiving moderately/highly emetogenic chemotherapy. Pediatr Hematol Oncol 2000;17:445-55. 50. Jackson KC, Lipman AG. Anxiety in palliative care patients. J Pharmaceut Care Pain Symptom Control 1999;7:23-35. 51. Numazaki M, Fujii Y. Subhypnotic dose of propofol for the prevention of nausea and vomiting during spinal anaesthesia for caesarean section. Anaesth Intensive Care 2000;28:262-5. 52. Tomioka S, Kurio T, Takaishi K, Nakajo N. Propofol is effective in chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting: a case report with quantitative analysis. Anesth Analg 1999;89:798-9. 53. Kromer W. Endogenous opioids, the enteric nervous system and gut motility. Dig Dis 1990;8:361-73. 54. Junien JL, Riviere P. Review article: the hypersensitive gut -- peripheral kappa agonists as a new pharmacological approach. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 1995;9:117-26. 55. Tonini M, Waterman SA, Candura SM, Coccini T, Costa M. Sites of action of morphine on the ascending excitatory reflex in the guinea-pig small intestine. Neurosci Lett 1992;144:195-8. 56. Megens AAHP, Canters LLJ, Awouters FHL, Niemegeers CJE. Is in vivo dissociation between the antipropulsive and antidiarrheal properties of opioids in rates related to gut selectivity? Arch Int Pharmacodyn 1989;298:220-9. 57. Bianchi G, Ferretti P, Recchia M, Rocchetti M, Tavani A, Manara L. Morphine tissue levels and reduction of gastrointestinal transit in rats. Correlation supports primary action site in the gut. Gastroenterology 1983;85:852-8. 58. Fox-Threlkeld JE, Daniel EE, Christinck F, Hruby VJ, Cipris S, Woskowska Z. Identification of mechanisms and sites of actions of mu and delta opioid receptor activation in the canine intestine. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1994;268:689-700. 59. Manara L, Bianchi G, Fiocchi R, Notarnicola A, Peracchia F, Tavani A. Inhibition of gastrointestinal transit by morphine and FK 33-824 in the rat and comparative narcotic antagonist properties of naloxone and its N-methyl quaternary analog. Life Sci 1982;31:1271-4. 60. Maurer AH, Krevsky B, Knight LC, Brown K. Opioid and opioid-like drug effects on whole-gut transit measured by scintigraphy. J Nucl Med 1996;37:818-22. 61. Mancini I, Bruera E. Constipation in advanced cancer patients. Support Care Cancer 1998;6:356-64. 62. Mercadante S. Diarrhea, malabsorption, and constipation. In: Berger AM, Portenoy RK, Weissman DE, eds. Principles and practice of supportive oncology. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 1998:191-206. 63. Crowther AG. Management of constipation in terminally ill patients. J Int Med Res 1978;6:348-50. 64. Fallon MT, Hanks GW. Morphine, constipation and performance status in advanced cancer patients. Palliat Med 1999;13:159-60. 65. Castle SC, Cantrell M, Israel DS, Samuelson MJ. Constipation prevention: empiric use of stool softeners questioned. Geriatrics 1991;46:84-6. 66. Hurdon V, Viola R, Schroder C. How useful is docusate in patients at risk for constipation? A systematic review of the evidence in the chronically ill. J Pain Symptom Manage 2000;19:130-6. 67. Maguire LC, Yon JL, Miller E. Prevention of narcotic-induced constipation [letter]. N Engl J Med 1981;305:1651. 68. Sanders JF. Lactulose syrup assessed in a double-blind study of elderly constipated patients. J Am Geriatr Soc 1978;26:236-9. 69. Weed HG. Lactulose vs sorbitol for treatment of obstipation in hospice programs [letter]. Mayo Clin Proc 2000;75:541. 70. Kot TV, Pettit-Young NA. Lactulose in the management of constipation: a current review. Ann Pharmacother 1992;26:1277-82. 71. Lederle FA, Busch DL, Mattox KM, West MJ, Aske DM. Cost-effective treatment of constipation in the elderly: a randomized double-blind comparison of sorbitol and lactulose. Am J Med 1990;89:597-601. 72. Agra Y, Sacristan A, Gonzalez M, Ferrari M, Portugues A, Calvo MJ. Efficacy of senna versus lactulose in terminal cancer patients treated with opioids. J Pain Symptom Manage 1998;15:1-7. 73. Sykes NP. A volunteer model for the comparison of laxatives in opioid-related constipation. J Pain Symptom Manage 1996;11:363-9. 74. Franz G. The senna drug and its chemistry. Pharmacology 1993;47(suppl 1):2-6. 75.de Witte P. Metabolism and pharmacokinetics of anthranoids. Pharmacology 1993;47(suppl 1):86-97. 76. Warren DE. Practical use of rectal medications in palliative care. J Pain Symptom Manage 1996;11:378-87. 77. Schaefer DC, Cheskin LJ. Constipation in the elderly. Am Fam Physician 1998;58:907-14. 78. Culpepper-Morgan JA, Inturrisi CE, Portenoy RK, et al. Treatment of opioid-induced constipation with oral naloxone: a pilot study. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1992;52:90-5. 79. Jurna I, Kaiser R, Kretz O, Baldauf J. Oral naloxone reduces constipation but not antinociception from oral morphine in the rat. Neurosci Lett 1992;142:62-4. 80. Yuan CS, Foss JF, O'Connor M, Toledano A, Roizen MF, Moss J. Methylnaltrexone prevents morphine-induced delay in oral-cecal transit time without affecting analgesia: a double-blind randomized placebo-controlled trial. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1996;59:469-75. 81. Yuan CS, Foss JF, Osinski J, Toledano A, Roizen MF, Moss J. The safety and efficacy of oral methylnaltrexone in preventing morphine-induced delay in oral-cecal transit time. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1997;61:467-75. 82. Yuan CS, Foss JF, O'Connor M, Osinski J, Roizen MF, Moss J. Effects of intravenous methylnaltrexone on opioid-induced gut motility and transit time changes in subjects receiving chronic methadone therapy: a pilot study. Pain 1999;83:631-5. 83. Meissner W, Schmidt U, Hartmann M, Kath R, Reinhart K. Oral naloxone reverses opioid-associated constipation. Pain 2000;84:105-9. 84. Sykes NP. An investigation of the ability of oral naloxone to correct opioid-related constipation in patients with advanced cancer. Palliat Med 1996;10:135-44. 85. Sykes NP. Oral naloxone in opioid-associated constipation [letter]. Lancet 1991;337:1475. 86. Robinson BA, Johansson L, Shaw J. Oral naloxone in opioid-associated constipation. Lancet 1991;338:581-2. 87. Cheskin LJ, Chami TN, Johnson RE, Jaffe JH. Assessment of nalmefene glucuronide as a selective gut opioid antagonist. Drug Alcohol Depend 1995;39:151-4. 88. Yuan CS, Foss JF, O'Connor M, et al. Methylnaltrexone for reversal of constipation due to chronic methadone use: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2000;283:367-72. 89. Freedman MD, Schwartz HJ, Roby R, Fleisher S. Tolerance and efficacy of polyethylene glycol 3350/electrolyte solution versus lactulose in relieving opiate induced constipation: a double-blinded placebo-controlled trial. J Clin Pharmacol 1997;37:904-7. 90. Attar A, Lemann M, Ferguson A, et al. Comparison of a low dose polyethylene glycol electrolyte solution with lactulose for treatment of chronic constipation. Gut 1999;44:226-30. 91. Osborne R, Joel S, Trew D, Slevin M. Morphine and metabolite behavior after different routes of morphine administration: demonstration of the importance of the active metabolite morphine-6-glucuronide. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1990;47:12-19. 92. Bruera E, Belzile M, Pituskin E, et al. Randomized, double-blind, cross-over trial comparing safety and efficacy of oral controlled-release oxycodone with controlled-release morphine in patients with cancer pain. J Clin Oncol 1998;16:3222-9. 93. Heiskanen T, Kalso E. Controlled-release oxycodone and morphine in cancer related pain. Pain 1997;73:37-45. 94. Davies A, Prentice W. Re: fentanyl, morphine, and constipation [letter]. J Pain Symptom Manage 1998;16:141-4. 95. Ahmedzai S, Brooks D. Transdermal fentanyl versus sustained-release oral morphine in cancer pain: preference, efficacy, and quality of life. The TTS-fentanyl comparative trial group. J Pain Symptom Manage 1997;13:254-61. 96. Peterson GM, Randall CT, Paterson J. Plasma levels of morphine and morphine glucuronides in the treatment of cancer pain: relationship to renal function and route of administration. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 1990;38:121-4. Acknowledgements The authors gratefully acknowledge Dr. C. A. Bond for his assistance in manuscript preparation. Reprint Address Address reprint requests to Christopher M. Herndon, Pharm.D., Ortho-McNeil Pharmaceutical, Inc., 1301 Engle Court, O'Fallon, IL 62269; e-mail: cherndon@ompus.jnj. com. Christopher M. Herndon, Pharm.D., Kenneth C. Jackson II, Pharm.D., Pamala A. Hallin, Pharm.D.; School of Pharmacy, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Lubbock, Texas; Division of Clinical Affairs, Ortho-McNeil Pharmaceutical, O'Fallon, Illinois. Thanks to MEDSCAPE.COM Remember we are NOT Doctors and have NO medical training. This site is like an Encylopedia - there are many pages, many links on many topics. Support our work with any size DONATION - see left side of any page - for how to donate. You can help raise awareness of CAM.